Tech4Biowaste - User contributions [en]

Ammonia fibre expansion

2022-01-31T16:29:03Z

Anneleen De Vriendt: /* Feedstock */

{{Infobox technology}}
<onlyinclude>Ammonia fibre expansion (AFEX) is a thermochemical pretreatment that uses volatile ammonia as the main reactant for cellulosic biomass pretreatment. AFEX pretreatment increases the accessibility of polysaccharides to enzymes for hydrolysis into fermentable sugars. These released sugars can be converted into fuels and chemicals in a biorefinery. AFEX offers several advantages over other pretreatments, which include near complete recovery of the pretreatment chemical (ammonia), nutrient addition for microbial growth through the remaining ammonia on pretreated biomass, and not requiring a washing step during the process which facilitates high solid loading hydrolysis.</onlyinclude>

== Feedstock ==

=== Origin and composition ===
Agricultural residues and energy crops

=== Pre-treatment ===

== Process and technologies ==

=== Process ===
During AFEX pretreatment, liquid ammonia is added to the biomass under moderate pressure (100 to 400 psi) and temperature (70 to 200°C) before rapidly releasing the pressure. Major process parameters are the temperature of the reaction, residence time, ammonia loading, and water loading. The process decrystallises the cellulose, hydrolyses hemicellulose, removes and depolymerises lignin, and increases the size and number of micropores in the cell wall. As a result, the rate of enzymatic hydrolysis increases significantly.<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Mosier N., Wyman C., Dale BE., Elander R., Lee YY., Holtzappel M., Ladisch M.|year=2005|title=Features of promising technologies for pretreatment of lignocellulosic biomass|journal=Bioresource Technology|volume=96|page=673-686}}</ref>

=== Technologies ===

== Product ==
After AFEX hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass, fermentable sugars are produced. These fermentable sugars can subsequently be converted into fuels (e.g., bioethanol) and chemicals.

=== Post-treatment ===

== Technology providers ==
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+'''Technology comparison'''
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Company name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Country
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology category
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| TRL
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Capacity [kg/h]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Processable mass [kg]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Pressure [bar]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Temperature [°C]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Ammonia loading [L]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Water loading [L]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Residence time [h]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Food waste
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Garden & park waste
|-
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!
!
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| [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Company_1|Company 1]]
| [Country HQ location]
| [Technology category (if different sub-categories are defined this has to be specified here, the available categories can be found on each technology page under the chapter [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Process_and_technologies|Process and technologies]])]
| [Technology name (the "branded name" or the usual naming from company side)]
| [4-9]
| [numeric value]
|
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| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
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| [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Company_2|Company 2]]
| [Country HQ location]
| [(if different sub-categories are defined this has to be specified here, the available categories can be found on each technology page under the chapter [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Process_and_technologies|Process and technologies]])]
| [Technology name (the "branded name" or the usual naming from company side)]
| [4-9]
| [numeric value]
|
|
|
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|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
|}

=== Michigan Biotechnology Institute (MBI) ===
{{Infobox provider-ammonia fibre expansion|Company=Michigan Biotechnology Institute|Country=USA|Technology name=packed bed AFEX|Technology category=Thermochemical processes|Webpage=http://www.mbi.org/|TRL=4-5|Capacity=1.000|Temperature=100-140|Residence time=15-30|Feedstock=Agricultural residues}}

== Open access pilot and demo facility providers ==
Currently no providers have been identified.

== Patents ==
Currently no patents have been identified.

== References ==

Pyrolysis

2022-01-31T16:25:58Z

Anneleen De Vriendt: /* Product */

{{Infobox technology
| Feedstock = [[Garden and park waste]] (wood, leaves)
| Product = Coal, pyrolysis oil, pyrolysis gas
|Name=Pyrolysis}}
<onlyinclude>'''Pyrolysis''' (from greek ''pyr,'' "fire" and ''lysis,'' "loosing/unbind") is a conversion technology that utilises a thermochemical process to convert organic compounds in presence of heat and absence of oxygen into valuable products which can be solid, liquid or gaseous. The chemical transformations of substances are generally accompanied by the breaking of chemical bonds which leads to the conversion of more complex molecules into simpler molecules which may also combine with each other to build up larger molecules again. The products of pyrolysis are usually not the actual building blocks of the decomposed substance, but are structurally modified (e.g. by cyclization and aromatisation or rearrangement).</onlyinclude>

== Feedstock ==

=== Origin and composition ===
Since all kind of [[biowaste]] contains hydrocarbonaceous material it can also be processed via pyrolysis. However, the composition of the feedstock has an impact on the pyrolysis process and therewith on the products which can be obtained. Usually wood and herbaceous feedstocks are processed which are composed differently<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|author=Carpenter, D., Westover, T. L., Czernik, S. and Jablonski, W.|year=2014|title=Biomass feedstocks for renewable fuel production: a review of the impacts of feedstock and pretreatment on the yield and product distribution of fast pyrolysis bio-oils and vapors|journal=Green Chemistry|volume=16|issue=2|page=384-406|doi=10.1039/C3GC41631C}}</ref> which qualifies [[garden and park waste]] as suitable feedstock.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
Typical composition of typical pyrolysis feedstocks<ref name=":2" />
!Feedstock:
!Corn stover
!Switchgrass
!Wood
|-
| colspan="4" |Proximate analysis wt [%]
|-
|Moisture
|8.0
|9.8
|42.0
|-
|Ash
|6.9
|8.1
|2.3
|-
|Volatile matter
|69.7
|69.1
|47.8
|-
|Fixed carbon
|15.4
|12.9
|7.9
|-
| colspan="4" |Elemental analysis [%]
|-
|Carbon
|49.7
|50.7
|51.5
|-
|Hydrogen
|5.91
|6.32
|4.71
|-
|Oxygen
|42.6
|41.0
|40.9
|-
|Nitrogen
|0.97
|0.83
|1.06
|-
|Sulphur
|0.11
|0.21
|0.12
|-
|Chlorine
|0.28
|0.22
|0.02
|-
| colspan="4" |Structural organics wt [%]
|-
|Cellulose
|36.3
|44.8
|38.3
|-
|Hemicellulose
|23.5
|35.3
|33.4
|-
|Lignin
|17.5
|11.9
|25.2
|}

=== Pre-treatment ===
The pre-treatment of the feedstock has an impact on the pyrolysis process, its efficiency, and the yield of certain products. The following pre-treatments may be considered <ref name=":0" />:
*[[Sizing]] (e.g. chipping, grinding)
* [[Densification]] (e.g. pressure-densification)
* [[Steam explosion]]
* [[Drying]] (e.g. air drying, freeze-drying)
* [[Extraction]] (e.g. acid and alkali treatment for the removal of minerals)
* [[Torrefaction|Wet torrefaction]]
*[[Ammonia fibre expansion]]
* [[Composting]] (e.g. Decomposing via fungi)

== Process and technologies ==
The pyrolysis is an endothermal process which requires the input of energy in form of heat which can either be directly (direct pyrolysis) applied via hot gases or indirectly (indirect pyrolysis) via external heating of the reactor. Compared to [[gasification]], the process takes place in an atmosphere without oxygen or at least under a limitation of oxygen.

In general, pyrolysis can be divided into different steps which include:

# Evaporation and vapourisation of water and other volatile molecules which is induced at temperatures > 100 °C
# Thermal excitation and dissociation of the molecules induced at temperatures between 100-600 °C, which also may involve the production of free radicals as intermediate stage
# Reaction and recombination of the molecules, and triggering of chain reactions through free radicals

The pyrolysis process and the formation of products can be controlled to a certain extend via different temperature ranges and reaction times as well as by utilising reactive gases, liquids, catalysts, alternative forms of heat application (e.g. via microwaves or plasma), and a variety of [[reactor designs]]. Depending on the residence time and temperature as well as different technical reaction environments the pyrolysis can be categorised under diffferent terms as follows.

=== Categorisation according residence time and temperature ===

* Fast pyrolysis
* Intermediate pyrolysis
* Slow pyrolysis (charring, torrefaction)

=== Categorisation according technical reaction environment ===
Depending on these factors the pyrolysis technology can be divided into different categories as follows:

* Catalytic cracking
** One-step process
** Two-step process
* Hydrocracking
* Thermal cracking
* Thermal depolymerisation

=== Reactions ===
A range of different reactions occur during the process such as [[dehydration]], [[depolymerisation]], [[isomerisation]], [[aromatisation]], [[decarboxylation]], and [[charring]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=Hu, X. and Gholizadeh, M.|year=2019|title=Biomass pyrolysis: A review of the process development and challenges from initial researches up to the commercialisation stage|journal=Journal of Energy Chemistry|volume=39|issue=|page=109-143|doi=doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2019.01.024}}</ref>.

== Product ==
A range of solid, liquid, and gaseous products can be obtained from the pyrolysis process including [[char]], [[pyrolysis oil]], and [[pyrolysis gas]]. Depending on the feedstock origin and composition as well as the pre-treatment and process the yield as well as the chemical and physical properties of the products can vary.

=== Char ===
[[File:Charcoal.jpg|thumb|Wood-based char]]
As mentioned the functional properties of char may vary which includes carbon content, functional groups, heating value, surface area, and pore-size distribution. The application possibilities are versatile, the char can be used as soil amendment for carbon sequestration, soil fertility improvement, and pollution remediation. Furthermore the char can be used for catalytic purposes, energy storage, or sorbent for pollutant removal from water or flue-gas.

=== Pyrolysis oil ===
[[File:Corn Stover Tar from Pyrolysis by Microwave Heating.jpg|thumb|upright|Pyrolysis oil from corn stover pyrolysis]]
Produced pyrolysis oil is a multiphase emulsion composed of water and hundreds of organic molecules such as acids, alcohols, ketones, furans, phenols, ethers, esters, sugars, aldehydes, alkenes, nitrogen- and oxygen- containing molecules. A longer storage or exposure to higher temperature increases the viscosity due to possible chemical reactions of the compounds in the oil which leads to the formation of larger molecules<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|author=Czernik, S. and Bridgwater|year=2004|title=Overview of Applications of Biomass Fast Pyrolysis Oil|journal=Energy & Fuels|volume=18|issue=2|page=590-598|doi=10.1021/ef034067u}}</ref>. The presence of oligomeric species with a molecular weight >5000 decreases the stability of the oil<ref name=":0" />, furthermore the formation of aerosols from volatile substances accelerates the aging process in which the water content and phase separation increases. The application as fuel in standard equipment for petroleum fuels (e.g. boilers, engines, turbines) may be limited due to poor volatility, high viscosity, coking, and corrosiveness of the oil<ref name=":1" />. To overcome these problems the pyrolysis oil has to be upgraded in a post-treatment to be used as fuel and/or the equipment for the end-application has to be adapted.

=== Pyrolysis gas ===
Syngas can be obtained from the pyrolysis gas which is composed of different gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane, ethane, ethylene, propane, suphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and ammonia<ref name=":0" />. The different gases can be fractionated from each other in the post-treatment to utilise them for different applications such as the production of chemicals, cosmetics, food, polymers or the utilisation as fuel or technical gas.

=== Post-treatment ===

* [[Fischer-Tropsch-Synthesis]]

== Technology providers ==
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+'''Technology comparison'''
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Company name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Country
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| City
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology category
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| TRL
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Capacity [kg/h]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Catalyst
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Reactor
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Temperature [°C]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Food waste
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Garden & park waste
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Char
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Oil
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Syngas
|-
! style="height:1.8em;"|
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
|-
|[[Pyrolysis#BioBTX|BioBTX]]
|The Netherlands
|Groningen
|Catalytic Pyrolysis, two-step
|Integrated Cascading Catalytic Pyrolysis (ICCP) technology
|5-6
|10
|
|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center"|●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center"|●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center"|●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center"|●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center"|●
|-
|[[Pyrolysis#BTG_Bioliquids|BTG Bioliquids]]
|The Netherlands
|Hengelo
|Fast Pyrolysis
|BTG fast pyrolysis technology
|8-9
|5,000
|
|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center"|●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center"|●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center"|●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center"|●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center"|●
|-
|}

===BioBTX===
{{Infobox provider-pyrolysis
| Company = Bio-BTX B.V.
| Webpage = https://biobtx.com/
| Country = The Netherlands
| TRL = 5-6
| Technology name = Integrated Cascading Catalytic Pyrolysis (ICCP) technology
| Technology category = Catalytic Pyrolysis, two-step
| Feedstock = Biomass (liquid, solid), wood pulp lignin residues, used cooking oil
| Product = Benzene, toluene, xylene, aromatics, light gases
| Reactor = Fluidised sand bed, fixed bed
| Heating = Fluidised sand bed
| Atmosphere = Inert
| Pressure = 1-4
| Capacity = 10
| Temperature = 450-650
| Catalyst = Zeolite
| Other = Unknown
}}
BioBTX was founded in 2012 by KNN and Syncom, in collaboration with the university of Groningen, Netherlands. The company is a technology provider developing chemical recycling technologies for different feedstocks including non-food bio- and plastics waste. In 2018 a pilot plant with the capability to process biomass and plastic waste was set up at the Zernike Advanced Processing (ZAP) Facility. The company is now focused on setting up their first commercial plant with a capacity of 20,000 to 30,000 tonnes. The investing phase B was recently completed, with the last investment phase in 2019 the financial requirements are fulfilled to complete the commercialisation activities to build the plant which is expected for 2023.

The technology is based on an Integrated Cascading Catalytic Pyrolysis (ICCP) process, being able to produce aromatics including benzene, toluene, and xylene (BTX) as well as light olefins from low grade biomass and plastics waste. This technology utilises catalytic cracking in a two-step process at temperatures between 450- 850 °C. In the first step the feedstock material is vaporised via thermal cracking. The pyrolysis vapours are then directly passed into a second reactor in which they are converted into aromatics by utilising a zeolite catalyst which can be continuously regenerated. Finally, the products are separated from the gas via condensation. An ex situ approach of catalytic conversion has several advantages such as the protection of the catalyst from deactivation/degradation expanding its lifetime, a greater variety of feedstock, and a precise adjustment of process conditions (e.g. temperature, catalyst design, and Weight Hourly Space Velocity (WHSV) in each step for improved yields. In current pilot plant with 10 kg h-1 feed capacity for either waste plastics or biomass, final design details are established, which will be include in the running engineering activities for the commercial plant.

=== BTG Bioliquids===
{{Infobox provider-pyrolysis
| Company = BTG Bioliquids
| Webpage = https://www.btg-bioliquids.com/
| Country = The Netherlands
| TRL = 8-9
| Technology name = BTG fast pyrolysis technology
| Technology category = Fast pyrolysis
| Feedstock = Woody biomass
| Product = Fast Pyrolysis Bio-Oil (FPBO), heat (steam), power (electricity)
| Reactor = Rotating Cone Reactor
| Heating = Fluidised sand bed
| Atmosphere = Inert
| Pressure = -
| Capacity = 5,000
| Temperature = 400-550
| Catalyst = -
| Other = -
}}
[[File:EMPYRO.jpg|alt=EMPYRO factory|thumb|The EMPYRO pyrolysis factory in Hengelo, the Netherlands.]]
BTG Bioliquids, a spin-off company from BTG Biomass Technology Group, was founded in 2007 in Enschede, the Netherlands. BTG Bioliquids aims for commercial implementation of their fast pyrolysis technology, which focuses on wood residues. Since 2015, the first successful production plant EMPYRO is in operation in Hengelo, the Netherlands, producing 24,000 tonnes pyrolysis oil per year. In 2018 EMPYRO was sold to Twence. Several new plants with Green Fuel Nordic in Finland and with Pyrocell in Sweden are announced, with currently two plants operational in Finland and Sweden.

===Fortum (Combined Heat and Power plant, CHP; LignoCat?)===

===Fraunhofer UMSICHT (TCR-Process --> Susteen Technologies GmbH?)===

===Green Fuel Nordic===

=== INEOS ===

===KIT (bioliq-Project)===

===Preem (Biozin; RenFuel)===

===Pyrocell ===

=== Splainex Ecosystems ===

===Statkraft (Silva Green Fuel) ===

===VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland===

=== Polytechnic (GreenCarbon) ===

== Open access pilot and demo facility providers ==
[https://biopilots4u.eu/database?field_technology_area_data_target_id=109&field_technology_area_target_id%5B95%5D=95&field_contact_address_value_country_code=All&field_scale_value=All&combine=&combine_1= Pilots4U Database]

==Patents==
Currently no patents have been identified.

==References==
Al Arni, S. 2018: Comparison of slow and fast pyrolysis for converting biomass into fuel. Renewable Energy, Vol. 124 197-201. doi:<nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.04.060</nowiki>

Czajczyńska, D., Anguilano, L., Ghazal, H., Krzyżyńska, R., Reynolds, A. J., Spencer, N. and Jouhara, H. 2017: Potential of pyrolysis processes in the waste management sector. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, Vol. 3 171-197. doi:<nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2017.06.003</nowiki>

Speight, J. 2019: Handbook of Industrial Hydrocarbon Processes. Gulf Professional Publishing, Oxford, United Kingdom.

Tan, H., Lee, C. T., Ong, P. Y., Wong, K. Y., Bong, C. P. C., Li, C. and Gao, Y. 2021: A Review On The Comparison Between Slow Pyrolysis And Fast Pyrolysis On The Quality Of Lignocellulosic And Lignin-Based Biochar. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, Vol. 1051 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1051/1/012075

Waheed, Q. M. K., Nahil, M. A. and Williams, P. T. 2013: Pyrolysis of waste biomass: investigation of fast pyrolysis and slow pyrolysis process conditions on product yield and gas composition. Journal of the Energy Institute, Vol. 86 (4), 233-241. doi:10.1179/1743967113Z.00000000067

Zaman, C. Z., Pal, K., Yehye, W. A., Sagadevan, S., Shah, S. T., Adebisi, G. A., Marliana, E., Rafique, R. F. and Johan, R. B. 2017: Pyrolysis: A Sustainable Way to Generate Energy from Waste. IntechOpen

<references />

[[Category:Primary processing]]
[[Category:Secondary processing]]

Pyrolysis

2022-01-31T16:05:18Z

Anneleen De Vriendt: /* Process and technologies */

{{Infobox technology
| Feedstock = [[Garden and park waste]] (wood, leaves)
| Product = Coal, pyrolysis oil, pyrolysis gas
|Name=Pyrolysis}}
<onlyinclude>'''Pyrolysis''' (from greek ''pyr,'' "fire" and ''lysis,'' "loosing/unbind") is a conversion technology that utilises a thermochemical process to convert organic compounds in presence of heat and absence of oxygen into valuable products which can be solid, liquid or gaseous. The chemical transformations of substances are generally accompanied by the breaking of chemical bonds which leads to the conversion of more complex molecules into simpler molecules which may also combine with each other to build up larger molecules again. The products of pyrolysis are usually not the actual building blocks of the decomposed substance, but are structurally modified (e.g. by cyclization and aromatisation or rearrangement).</onlyinclude>

== Feedstock ==

=== Origin and composition ===
Since all kind of [[biowaste]] contains hydrocarbonaceous material it can also be processed via pyrolysis. However, the composition of the feedstock has an impact on the pyrolysis process and therewith on the products which can be obtained. Usually wood and herbaceous feedstocks are processed which are composed differently<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|author=Carpenter, D., Westover, T. L., Czernik, S. and Jablonski, W.|year=2014|title=Biomass feedstocks for renewable fuel production: a review of the impacts of feedstock and pretreatment on the yield and product distribution of fast pyrolysis bio-oils and vapors|journal=Green Chemistry|volume=16|issue=2|page=384-406|doi=10.1039/C3GC41631C}}</ref> which qualifies [[garden and park waste]] as suitable feedstock.
{| class="wikitable"
|+
Typical composition of typical pyrolysis feedstocks<ref name=":2" />
!Feedstock:
!Corn stover
!Switchgrass
!Wood
|-
| colspan="4" |Proximate analysis wt [%]
|-
|Moisture
|8.0
|9.8
|42.0
|-
|Ash
|6.9
|8.1
|2.3
|-
|Volatile matter
|69.7
|69.1
|47.8
|-
|Fixed carbon
|15.4
|12.9
|7.9
|-
| colspan="4" |Elemental analysis [%]
|-
|Carbon
|49.7
|50.7
|51.5
|-
|Hydrogen
|5.91
|6.32
|4.71
|-
|Oxygen
|42.6
|41.0
|40.9
|-
|Nitrogen
|0.97
|0.83
|1.06
|-
|Sulphur
|0.11
|0.21
|0.12
|-
|Chlorine
|0.28
|0.22
|0.02
|-
| colspan="4" |Structural organics wt [%]
|-
|Cellulose
|36.3
|44.8
|38.3
|-
|Hemicellulose
|23.5
|35.3
|33.4
|-
|Lignin
|17.5
|11.9
|25.2
|}

=== Pre-treatment ===
The pre-treatment of the feedstock has an impact on the pyrolysis process, its efficiency, and the yield of certain products. The following pre-treatments may be considered <ref name=":0" />:
*[[Sizing]] (e.g. chipping, grinding)
* [[Densification]] (e.g. pressure-densification)
* [[Steam explosion]]
* [[Drying]] (e.g. air drying, freeze-drying)
* [[Extraction]] (e.g. acid and alkali treatment for the removal of minerals)
* [[Torrefaction|Wet torrefaction]]
*[[Ammonia fibre expansion]]
* [[Composting]] (e.g. Decomposing via fungi)

== Process and technologies ==
The pyrolysis is an endothermal process which requires the input of energy in form of heat which can either be directly (direct pyrolysis) applied via hot gases or indirectly (indirect pyrolysis) via external heating of the reactor. Compared to [[gasification]], the process takes place in an atmosphere without oxygen or at least under a limitation of oxygen.

In general, pyrolysis can be divided into different steps which include:

# Evaporation and vapourisation of water and other volatile molecules which is induced at temperatures > 100 °C
# Thermal excitation and dissociation of the molecules induced at temperatures between 100-600 °C, which also may involve the production of free radicals as intermediate stage
# Reaction and recombination of the molecules, and triggering of chain reactions through free radicals

The pyrolysis process and the formation of products can be controlled to a certain extend via different temperature ranges and reaction times as well as by utilising reactive gases, liquids, catalysts, alternative forms of heat application (e.g. via microwaves or plasma), and a variety of [[reactor designs]]. Depending on the residence time and temperature as well as different technical reaction environments the pyrolysis can be categorised under diffferent terms as follows.

=== Categorisation according residence time and temperature ===

* Fast pyrolysis
* Intermediate pyrolysis
* Slow pyrolysis (charring, torrefaction)

=== Categorisation according technical reaction environment ===
Depending on these factors the pyrolysis technology can be divided into different categories as follows:

* Catalytic cracking
** One-step process
** Two-step process
* Hydrocracking
* Thermal cracking
* Thermal depolymerisation

=== Reactions ===
A range of different reactions occur during the process such as [[dehydration]], [[depolymerisation]], [[isomerisation]], [[aromatisation]], [[decarboxylation]], and [[charring]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|author=Hu, X. and Gholizadeh, M.|year=2019|title=Biomass pyrolysis: A review of the process development and challenges from initial researches up to the commercialisation stage|journal=Journal of Energy Chemistry|volume=39|issue=|page=109-143|doi=doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jechem.2019.01.024}}</ref>.

== Product ==
A range of solid, liquid, and gaseous products can be obtained from the pyrolysis process including [[char]], [[pyrolysis oil]], and [[pyrolysis gas]]. Depending on the feedstock origin and composition as well as the pre-treatment and process the yield as well as the chemical and physical properties of the products can vary.

=== Char ===
[[File:Charcoal.jpg|thumb|Wood-based char]]
As mentioned the functional properties of char may vary which includes carbon content, functional groups, heating value, surface area, and pore-size distribution. The application possibilities are versatile, the char can be used as soil amendment for carbon sequestration, soil fertility improvement, and pollution remediation. Furthermore the char can be used for catalytic purposes, energy storage, or sorbent for pollutant removal from water or flue-gas.

=== Pyrolysis oil ===
[[File:Corn Stover Tar from Pyrolysis by Microwave Heating.jpg|thumb|upright|Pyrolysis oil from corn stover pyrolysis]]
Produced pyrolysis oil is a multiphase emulsion composed of water and and hundrets of organic molecules such as acids, alcohols, ketones, furans, phenols, ethers, esters, sugars, aldehydes, alkenes, nitrogen- and oxygen- containing molecules. A longer storage or exposure to higher temperature increases the viscosity due to possible chemical reactions of the compounds in the oil which leads to the formation of larger molecules<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|author=Czernik, S. and Bridgwater|year=2004|title=Overview of Applications of Biomass Fast Pyrolysis Oil|journal=Energy & Fuels|volume=18|issue=2|page=590-598|doi=10.1021/ef034067u}}</ref>. The presence of oligomeric species with a molecular weight >5000 decreases the stability of the oil<ref name=":0" />, furthermore the formation of aerosols from volatile substances accelerates the aging process in which the water content and phase separation increases. The application as fuel in standard equipment for petroleum fuels (e.g. boilers, engines, turbines) may be limited due to poor volatility, high viscosity, coking, and corrosiveness of the oil<ref name=":1" />. To overcome these problems the pyrolysis oil has to be upgraded in a post-treatment to be used as fuel and/or the equipment for the end-application has to be adapted.

=== Pyrolysis gas ===
Syngas can be obtained from the pyrolysis gas which is composed of different gases such as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, hydrogen, methane, ethane, ethylene, propane, suphur oxides, nitrogen oxides, and ammonia<ref name=":0" />. The different gases can be fractionated from each other in the post-treatment to utilise them for different applications such as the production of chemicals, cosmetics, food, polymers or the utilisation as fuel or technical gas.

=== Post-treatment ===

* [[Fischer-Tropsch-Synthesis]]

== Technology providers ==
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+'''Technology comparison'''
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Company name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Country
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| City
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology category
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| TRL
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Capacity [kg/h]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Catalyst
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Reactor
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Temperature [°C]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Food waste
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Garden & park waste
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Char
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Oil
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Syngas
|-
! style="height:1.8em;"|
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
|-
|[[Pyrolysis#BioBTX|BioBTX]]
|The Netherlands
|Groningen
|Catalytic Pyrolysis, two-step
|Integrated Cascading Catalytic Pyrolysis (ICCP) technology
|5-6
|10
|
|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center"|●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center"|●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center"|●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center"|●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center"|●
|-
|[[Pyrolysis#BTG_Bioliquids|BTG Bioliquids]]
|The Netherlands
|Hengelo
|Fast Pyrolysis
|BTG fast pyrolysis technology
|8-9
|5,000
|
|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center"|●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center"|●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center"|●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center"|●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center"|●
|-
|}

===BioBTX===
{{Infobox provider-pyrolysis
| Company = Bio-BTX B.V.
| Webpage = https://biobtx.com/
| Country = The Netherlands
| TRL = 5-6
| Technology name = Integrated Cascading Catalytic Pyrolysis (ICCP) technology
| Technology category = Catalytic Pyrolysis, two-step
| Feedstock = Biomass (liquid, solid), wood pulp lignin residues, used cooking oil
| Product = Benzene, toluene, xylene, aromatics, light gases
| Reactor = Fluidised sand bed, fixed bed
| Heating = Fluidised sand bed
| Atmosphere = Inert
| Pressure = 1-4
| Capacity = 10
| Temperature = 450-650
| Catalyst = Zeolite
| Other = Unknown
}}
BioBTX was founded in 2012 by KNN and Syncom, in collaboration with the university of Groningen, Netherlands. The company is a technology provider developing chemical recycling technologies for different feedstocks including non-food bio- and plastics waste. In 2018 a pilot plant with the capability to process biomass and plastic waste was set up at the Zernike Advanced Processing (ZAP) Facility. The company is now focused on setting up their first commercial plant with a capacity of 20,000 to 30,000 tonnes. The investing phase B was recently completed, with the last investment phase in 2019 the financial requirements are fulfilled to complete the commercialisation activities to build the plant which is expected for 2023.

The technology is based on an Integrated Cascading Catalytic Pyrolysis (ICCP) process, being able to produce aromatics including benzene, toluene, and xylene (BTX) as well as light olefins from low grade biomass and plastics waste. This technology utilises catalytic cracking in a two-step process at temperatures between 450- 850 °C. In the first step the feedstock material is vaporised via thermal cracking. The pyrolysis vapours are then directly passed into a second reactor in which they are converted into aromatics by utilising a zeolite catalyst which can be continuously regenerated. Finally, the products are separated from the gas via condensation. An ex situ approach of catalytic conversion has several advantages such as the protection of the catalyst from deactivation/degradation expanding its lifetime, a greater variety of feedstock, and a precise adjustment of process conditions (e.g. temperature, catalyst design, and Weight Hourly Space Velocity (WHSV) in each step for improved yields. In current pilot plant with 10 kg h-1 feed capacity for either waste plastics or biomass, final design details are established, which will be include in the running engineering activities for the commercial plant.

=== BTG Bioliquids===
{{Infobox provider-pyrolysis
| Company = BTG Bioliquids
| Webpage = https://www.btg-bioliquids.com/
| Country = The Netherlands
| TRL = 8-9
| Technology name = BTG fast pyrolysis technology
| Technology category = Fast pyrolysis
| Feedstock = Woody biomass
| Product = Fast Pyrolysis Bio-Oil (FPBO), heat (steam), power (electricity)
| Reactor = Rotating Cone Reactor
| Heating = Fluidised sand bed
| Atmosphere = Inert
| Pressure = -
| Capacity = 5,000
| Temperature = 400-550
| Catalyst = -
| Other = -
}}
[[File:EMPYRO.jpg|alt=EMPYRO factory|thumb|The EMPYRO pyrolysis factory in Hengelo, the Netherlands.]]
BTG Bioliquids, a spin-off company from BTG Biomass Technology Group, was founded in 2007 in Enschede, the Netherlands. BTG Bioliquids aims for commercial implementation of their fast pyrolysis technology, which focuses on wood residues. Since 2015, the first successful production plant EMPYRO is in operation in Hengelo, the Netherlands, producing 24,000 tonnes pyrolysis oil per year. In 2018 EMPYRO was sold to Twence. Several new plants with Green Fuel Nordic in Finland and with Pyrocell in Sweden are announced, with currently two plants operational in Finland and Sweden.

===Fortum (Combined Heat and Power plant, CHP; LignoCat?)===

===Fraunhofer UMSICHT (TCR-Process --> Susteen Technologies GmbH?)===

===Green Fuel Nordic===

=== INEOS ===

===KIT (bioliq-Project)===

===Preem (Biozin; RenFuel)===

===Pyrocell ===

=== Splainex Ecosystems ===

===Statkraft (Silva Green Fuel) ===

===VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland===

=== Polytechnic (GreenCarbon) ===

== Open access pilot and demo facility providers ==
[https://biopilots4u.eu/database?field_technology_area_data_target_id=109&field_technology_area_target_id%5B95%5D=95&field_contact_address_value_country_code=All&field_scale_value=All&combine=&combine_1= Pilots4U Database]

==Patents==
Currently no patents have been identified.

==References==
Al Arni, S. 2018: Comparison of slow and fast pyrolysis for converting biomass into fuel. Renewable Energy, Vol. 124 197-201. doi:<nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2017.04.060</nowiki>

Czajczyńska, D., Anguilano, L., Ghazal, H., Krzyżyńska, R., Reynolds, A. J., Spencer, N. and Jouhara, H. 2017: Potential of pyrolysis processes in the waste management sector. Thermal Science and Engineering Progress, Vol. 3 171-197. doi:<nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsep.2017.06.003</nowiki>

Speight, J. 2019: Handbook of Industrial Hydrocarbon Processes. Gulf Professional Publishing, Oxford, United Kingdom.

Tan, H., Lee, C. T., Ong, P. Y., Wong, K. Y., Bong, C. P. C., Li, C. and Gao, Y. 2021: A Review On The Comparison Between Slow Pyrolysis And Fast Pyrolysis On The Quality Of Lignocellulosic And Lignin-Based Biochar. IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering, Vol. 1051 doi:10.1088/1757-899X/1051/1/012075

Waheed, Q. M. K., Nahil, M. A. and Williams, P. T. 2013: Pyrolysis of waste biomass: investigation of fast pyrolysis and slow pyrolysis process conditions on product yield and gas composition. Journal of the Energy Institute, Vol. 86 (4), 233-241. doi:10.1179/1743967113Z.00000000067

Zaman, C. Z., Pal, K., Yehye, W. A., Sagadevan, S., Shah, S. T., Adebisi, G. A., Marliana, E., Rafique, R. F. and Johan, R. B. 2017: Pyrolysis: A Sustainable Way to Generate Energy from Waste. IntechOpen

<references />

[[Category:Primary processing]]
[[Category:Secondary processing]]

Hydrothermal processing

2022-01-31T15:35:55Z

Anneleen De Vriendt: /* Process */

{{Infobox technology
|Name=Hydrothermal processing
|Category=[[Primary processing]]
|Feedstock =Feedstocks with high moisture content. [[Food waste]], [[Garden and park waste]]
|Product =Bio-crude, syngas, hydrochar
}}

<onlyinclude>Hydrothermal processing, also known as Hydrothermal Upgrading (HTU), is a thermochemical conversion process that is used to convert biomass into valuable products or biofuel. The process is usually performed in water at 250-374°C under pressures of 4-22 MPa. The biomass is degraded into small components in water. Based on the target products, which are bio-crude, syngas or hydrochar, the process conditions (e.g., temperature, pressure and residence time) are chosen. One of the most important advantages of hydrothermal processing is that it can use biomass with high moisture content withouth the need for pre-drying. Hydrothermal processing can be divided into three separate processes, depending on the severity of the operating conditions. These include hydrothermal carbonisation (HTC), hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL), and hydrothermal gasification (HTG).</onlyinclude>

== Feedstock ==

=== Origin and composition ===
Feedstocks with high moisture content are particularly suitable for hydrothermal processing and include feedstocks such as anaerobic digestion digestate, manures, sewage sludge, DDGS, food waste, municipal wastes, and aquatic biomass such as micro- and macroalgae. Hydrothermal processing routes can typically feed slurries up to 30 wt.% solids.

=== Pre-treatment ===

== Process and technologies ==

=== Process ===
A hydrothermal process is usually performed in water at 250-374°C under a pressure of 4-22 MPa. The process can also be carried out under self-generated pressure. The hydrothermal process is divided into two reaction conditions, namely subcritical and supercritical water conditions. These two conditions are determined by the critical point of water (i.e., 374°C and 22.1 MPa). Subcritical water is classified below the critical point at a 100-374°C temperature range and under sufficient pressure to remain liquid. Supercritical water occurs when the temperature is above 374°C and the pressure is above 22.1 MPa. The decomposition steps of biomass during the hydrothermal process can be summarized as follows: at approximately 100°C, the water-soluble portion of the biomass disperses into water, and hydrolysis takes place above 150°C. Meanwhile, biomass polymers (i.e., cellulose and hemicellulose) disintegrate into their monomeric chains. At approximately 300°C and 10 MPa, liquefaction occurs and bio-oil is obtained.

=== Technologies ===

* HTC occurs at temperatures between 180°C and 250°C and pressure of 2-4 MPa. This is the mildest of the three hydrothermal processing routes. The main product of HTC is solid hydrochar.

* HTL utilises subcritical water and occurs at temperatures between 250°C and 374°C and pressures up to 18 MPa. The main product of HTL is a liquid biocrude.

* HTG or supercritical water gasification (SCWG) occurs at temperatures above 374°C and higher pressures beyond 20 MPa. The main product of HTG is a syngas.

== Product ==
Depending on the technology, hydrochar, biocrude or syngas is produced. The produced gas is not the same as conventional syngas from [[gasification]], which is comprised of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Nevertheless, the gas is referred to as syngas but is typically high in either hydrogen or methane with carbon dioxide also present. The hydrochar can be utilised as fertilizers, adsorbents, and wastewater treatments. The intermediate biocrude can be further upgraded to liquid hydrocarbon fuels via catalytic hydrotreatment.

=== Post-treatment ===

== Technology providers ==
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+'''Technology comparison'''
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Company name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Country
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology category
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| TRL
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Capacity [kg/h]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Pressure [bar]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Temperature [°C]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Reactor
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Gasifying agent
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Food waste
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Garden & park waste
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Char
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Oil
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Syngas
|-
! style="height:1.8em;"|
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
|-
| [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Company_1|Company 1]]
| [Country HQ location]
| [Technology category (if different sub-categories are defined this has to be specified here, the available categories can be found on each technology page under the chapter [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Process_and_technologies|Process and technologies]])]
| [Technology name (the "branded name" or the usual naming from company side)]
| [4-9]
| [numeric value]
|
|
|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
|-
| [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Company_2|Company 2]]
| [Country HQ location]
| [(if different sub-categories are defined this has to be specified here, the available categories can be found on each technology page under the chapter [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Process_and_technologies|Process and technologies]])]
| [Technology name (the "branded name" or the usual naming from company side)]
| [4-9]
| [numeric value]
|
|
|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
|}

=== SCF Technologies A/S ===
{{Infobox provider-hydrothermal processing|Company=SCF Technologies A/S|Country=Denmark|Technology name=CatLiq|TRL=6-7|Product=Bio-oil|Feedstock=Wet biomass waste|Pressure=250|Temperature=>400|Technology category=Thermochemical processes|Capacity=15.000}}

=== Aarhus University ===

=== ENI S.p.A (W2F process) (Italy) ===

=== NextChem ===

== Open access pilot and demo facility providers ==
[https://biopilots4u.eu/database?field_technology_area_data_target_id=109&field_technology_area_target_id%5B86%5D=86&field_contact_address_value_country_code=All&field_scale_value=All&combine=&combine_1= Pilots4U Database]

== Patents ==
Currently no patents have been identified.

== References ==

Hydrothermal processing

2022-01-31T15:34:09Z

Anneleen De Vriendt: /* Product */

{{Infobox technology
|Name=Hydrothermal processing
|Category=[[Primary processing]]
|Feedstock =Feedstocks with high moisture content. [[Food waste]], [[Garden and park waste]]
|Product =Bio-crude, syngas, hydrochar
}}

<onlyinclude>Hydrothermal processing, also known as Hydrothermal Upgrading (HTU), is a thermochemical conversion process that is used to convert biomass into valuable products or biofuel. The process is usually performed in water at 250-374°C under pressures of 4-22 MPa. The biomass is degraded into small components in water. Based on the target products, which are bio-crude, syngas or hydrochar, the process conditions (e.g., temperature, pressure and residence time) are chosen. One of the most important advantages of hydrothermal processing is that it can use biomass with high moisture content withouth the need for pre-drying. Hydrothermal processing can be divided into three separate processes, depending on the severity of the operating conditions. These include hydrothermal carbonisation (HTC), hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL), and hydrothermal gasification (HTG).</onlyinclude>

== Feedstock ==

=== Origin and composition ===
Feedstocks with high moisture content are particularly suitable for hydrothermal processing and include feedstocks such as anaerobic digestion digestate, manures, sewage sludge, DDGS, food waste, municipal wastes, and aquatic biomass such as micro- and macroalgae. Hydrothermal processing routes can typically feed slurries up to 30 wt.% solids.

=== Pre-treatment ===

== Process and technologies ==

=== Process ===
A hydrothermal process is usually performed in water at 250-374°C under a pressure of 4-22 MPa. The process can also be carried out under self-generated pressure. The hydrothermal process is divided into two reaction conditions, namely subcritical and supercritical water conditions. These two conditions are determined by the critical point of water (i.e., 374°C and 22.1 MPa). Subcritical water is classified below the critical point at a 100-374°C temperature range and under sufficient pressure to remain liquid. Supercritical water occurs when the temperature is above 374°C and the pressure is above 22.1 MPa. The decomposition steps of biomass during the hydrothermal process can be summarized as follows: at approximately 100°C, the water-soluble portion of the biomass disperses into water, and hydrolysis takes place above 150°C. Meanwhile, biomass polymers (i.e., cellulose and hemicellulose) disintegrate into their monomeric chains. At approximately 300°C and 10 MPa, liquefaction occurs and bio-oil is obtained.

=== Technologies ===

* HTC occurs at temperatures between 180°C and 250°C and pressure of 2-4 MPa. This is the mildest of the three hydrothermal processing routes. The main product of HTC is solid hydrochar.

* HTL utilises subcritical water and occurs at temperatures between 250°C and 374°C and pressures up to 18 MPa. The main product of HTL is a liquid bio-crude.

* HTG or supercritical water gasification (SCWG) occurs at temperatures above 374°C and higher pressures beyond 20 MPa. The main product of HTG is a syngas.

== Product ==
Depending on the technology, hydrochar, bio-crude or syngas is produced. The produced gas is not the same as conventional syngas from [[gasification]], which is comprised of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Nevertheless, the gas is referred to as syngas but is typically high in either hydrogen or methane with carbon dioxide also present. The hydrochar can be utilised as fertilizers, adsorbents, and wastewater treatments. The intermediate biocrude can be further upgraded to liquid hydrocarbon fuels via catalytic hydrotreatment.

=== Post-treatment ===

== Technology providers ==
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+'''Technology comparison'''
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Company name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Country
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology category
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| TRL
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Capacity [kg/h]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Pressure [bar]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Temperature [°C]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Reactor
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Gasifying agent
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Food waste
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Garden & park waste
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Char
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Oil
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Syngas
|-
! style="height:1.8em;"|
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
|-
| [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Company_1|Company 1]]
| [Country HQ location]
| [Technology category (if different sub-categories are defined this has to be specified here, the available categories can be found on each technology page under the chapter [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Process_and_technologies|Process and technologies]])]
| [Technology name (the "branded name" or the usual naming from company side)]
| [4-9]
| [numeric value]
|
|
|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
|-
| [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Company_2|Company 2]]
| [Country HQ location]
| [(if different sub-categories are defined this has to be specified here, the available categories can be found on each technology page under the chapter [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Process_and_technologies|Process and technologies]])]
| [Technology name (the "branded name" or the usual naming from company side)]
| [4-9]
| [numeric value]
|
|
|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
|}

=== SCF Technologies A/S ===
{{Infobox provider-hydrothermal processing|Company=SCF Technologies A/S|Country=Denmark|Technology name=CatLiq|TRL=6-7|Product=Bio-oil|Feedstock=Wet biomass waste|Pressure=250|Temperature=>400|Technology category=Thermochemical processes|Capacity=15.000}}

=== Aarhus University ===

=== ENI S.p.A (W2F process) (Italy) ===

=== NextChem ===

== Open access pilot and demo facility providers ==
[https://biopilots4u.eu/database?field_technology_area_data_target_id=109&field_technology_area_target_id%5B86%5D=86&field_contact_address_value_country_code=All&field_scale_value=All&combine=&combine_1= Pilots4U Database]

== Patents ==
Currently no patents have been identified.

== References ==

Hydrothermal processing

2022-01-31T15:33:10Z

Anneleen De Vriendt: /* Process */

{{Infobox technology
|Name=Hydrothermal processing
|Category=[[Primary processing]]
|Feedstock =Feedstocks with high moisture content. [[Food waste]], [[Garden and park waste]]
|Product =Bio-crude, syngas, hydrochar
}}

<onlyinclude>Hydrothermal processing, also known as Hydrothermal Upgrading (HTU), is a thermochemical conversion process that is used to convert biomass into valuable products or biofuel. The process is usually performed in water at 250-374°C under pressures of 4-22 MPa. The biomass is degraded into small components in water. Based on the target products, which are bio-crude, syngas or hydrochar, the process conditions (e.g., temperature, pressure and residence time) are chosen. One of the most important advantages of hydrothermal processing is that it can use biomass with high moisture content withouth the need for pre-drying. Hydrothermal processing can be divided into three separate processes, depending on the severity of the operating conditions. These include hydrothermal carbonisation (HTC), hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL), and hydrothermal gasification (HTG).</onlyinclude>

== Feedstock ==

=== Origin and composition ===
Feedstocks with high moisture content are particularly suitable for hydrothermal processing and include feedstocks such as anaerobic digestion digestate, manures, sewage sludge, DDGS, food waste, municipal wastes, and aquatic biomass such as micro- and macroalgae. Hydrothermal processing routes can typically feed slurries up to 30 wt.% solids.

=== Pre-treatment ===

== Process and technologies ==

=== Process ===
A hydrothermal process is usually performed in water at 250-374°C under a pressure of 4-22 MPa. The process can also be carried out under self-generated pressure. The hydrothermal process is divided into two reaction conditions, namely subcritical and supercritical water conditions. These two conditions are determined by the critical point of water (i.e., 374°C and 22.1 MPa). Subcritical water is classified below the critical point at a 100-374°C temperature range and under sufficient pressure to remain liquid. Supercritical water occurs when the temperature is above 374°C and the pressure is above 22.1 MPa. The decomposition steps of biomass during the hydrothermal process can be summarized as follows: at approximately 100°C, the water-soluble portion of the biomass disperses into water, and hydrolysis takes place above 150°C. Meanwhile, biomass polymers (i.e., cellulose and hemicellulose) disintegrate into their monomeric chains. At approximately 300°C and 10 MPa, liquefaction occurs and bio-oil is obtained.

=== Technologies ===

* HTC occurs at temperatures between 180°C and 250°C and pressure of 2-4 MPa. This is the mildest of the three hydrothermal processing routes. The main product of HTC is solid hydrochar.

* HTL utilises subcritical water and occurs at temperatures between 250°C and 374°C and pressures up to 18 MPa. The main product of HTL is a liquid bio-crude.

* HTG or supercritical water gasification (SCWG) occurs at temperatures above 374°C and higher pressures beyond 20 MPa. The main product of HTG is a syngas.

== Product ==
Dependent on the technology, hydrochar, bio-crude or syngas is produced. The produced gas is not the same as conventional syngas from [[gasification]], which is comprised of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Nevertheless, the gas is referred to as syngas but is typically high in either hydrogen or methane with carbon dioxide also present. The hydrochar can be utilised as fertilizers, adsorbents, and wastewater treatments. The intermediate biocrude can be further upgraded to liquid hydrocarbon fuels via catalytic hydrotreatment.

=== Post-treatment ===

== Technology providers ==
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+'''Technology comparison'''
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Company name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Country
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology category
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| TRL
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Capacity [kg/h]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Pressure [bar]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Temperature [°C]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Reactor
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Gasifying agent
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Food waste
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Garden & park waste
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Char
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Oil
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Syngas
|-
! style="height:1.8em;"|
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
|-
| [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Company_1|Company 1]]
| [Country HQ location]
| [Technology category (if different sub-categories are defined this has to be specified here, the available categories can be found on each technology page under the chapter [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Process_and_technologies|Process and technologies]])]
| [Technology name (the "branded name" or the usual naming from company side)]
| [4-9]
| [numeric value]
|
|
|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
|-
| [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Company_2|Company 2]]
| [Country HQ location]
| [(if different sub-categories are defined this has to be specified here, the available categories can be found on each technology page under the chapter [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Process_and_technologies|Process and technologies]])]
| [Technology name (the "branded name" or the usual naming from company side)]
| [4-9]
| [numeric value]
|
|
|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
|}

=== SCF Technologies A/S ===
{{Infobox provider-hydrothermal processing|Company=SCF Technologies A/S|Country=Denmark|Technology name=CatLiq|TRL=6-7|Product=Bio-oil|Feedstock=Wet biomass waste|Pressure=250|Temperature=>400|Technology category=Thermochemical processes|Capacity=15.000}}

=== Aarhus University ===

=== ENI S.p.A (W2F process) (Italy) ===

=== NextChem ===

== Open access pilot and demo facility providers ==
[https://biopilots4u.eu/database?field_technology_area_data_target_id=109&field_technology_area_target_id%5B86%5D=86&field_contact_address_value_country_code=All&field_scale_value=All&combine=&combine_1= Pilots4U Database]

== Patents ==
Currently no patents have been identified.

== References ==

Hydrothermal processing

2022-01-31T15:32:07Z

Anneleen De Vriendt: /* Process */

{{Infobox technology
|Name=Hydrothermal processing
|Category=[[Primary processing]]
|Feedstock =Feedstocks with high moisture content. [[Food waste]], [[Garden and park waste]]
|Product =Bio-crude, syngas, hydrochar
}}

<onlyinclude>Hydrothermal processing, also known as Hydrothermal Upgrading (HTU), is a thermochemical conversion process that is used to convert biomass into valuable products or biofuel. The process is usually performed in water at 250-374°C under pressures of 4-22 MPa. The biomass is degraded into small components in water. Based on the target products, which are bio-crude, syngas or hydrochar, the process conditions (e.g., temperature, pressure and residence time) are chosen. One of the most important advantages of hydrothermal processing is that it can use biomass with high moisture content withouth the need for pre-drying. Hydrothermal processing can be divided into three separate processes, depending on the severity of the operating conditions. These include hydrothermal carbonisation (HTC), hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL), and hydrothermal gasification (HTG).</onlyinclude>

== Feedstock ==

=== Origin and composition ===
Feedstocks with high moisture content are particularly suitable for hydrothermal processing and include feedstocks such as anaerobic digestion digestate, manures, sewage sludge, DDGS, food waste, municipal wastes, and aquatic biomass such as micro- and macroalgae. Hydrothermal processing routes can typically feed slurries up to 30 wt.% solids.

=== Pre-treatment ===

== Process and technologies ==

=== Process ===
A hydrothermal process is usually performed in water at 250-374°C under a pressure of 4-22 MPa. The process can also be carried out under self-generated pressure. The hydrothermal process is divided into two reaction conditions, namely subcritical and supercritical water conditions. These two conditions are determined by the critical point of water (i.e., 374°C and 22.1 MPa). Subcritical water is classified below the critical point at a 100-374°C temperature range and under sufficient pressure to remain liquid. Supercritical water occurs when the temperature is above 374°C and the pressure is above 22.1 MPa. The decomposition steps of biomass during the hydrothermal process can be summarized as follows: at approximately 100°C, the water-soluble portion of the biomsas disperses into water, and hydrolysis takes place above 150°C. Meanwhile, biomass polymers (i.e., cellulose and hemicellulose) disintegrate into heir monomeric chains. At approximately 300°C and 10 MPa, liquefaction occurs and bio-oil is obtained.

=== Technologies ===

* HTC occurs at temperatures between 180°C and 250°C and pressure of 2-4 MPa. This is the mildest of the three hydrothermal processing routes. The main product of HTC is solid hydrochar.

* HTL utilises subcritical water and occurs at temperatures between 250°C and 374°C and pressures up to 18 MPa. The main product of HTL is a liquid bio-crude.

* HTG or supercritical water gasification (SCWG) occurs at temperatures above 374°C and higher pressures beyond 20 MPa. The main product of HTG is a syngas.

== Product ==
Dependent on the technology, hydrochar, bio-crude or syngas is produced. The produced gas is not the same as conventional syngas from [[gasification]], which is comprised of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Nevertheless, the gas is referred to as syngas but is typically high in either hydrogen or methane with carbon dioxide also present. The hydrochar can be utilised as fertilizers, adsorbents, and wastewater treatments. The intermediate biocrude can be further upgraded to liquid hydrocarbon fuels via catalytic hydrotreatment.

=== Post-treatment ===

== Technology providers ==
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+'''Technology comparison'''
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Company name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Country
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology category
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| TRL
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Capacity [kg/h]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Pressure [bar]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Temperature [°C]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Reactor
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Gasifying agent
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Food waste
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Garden & park waste
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Char
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Oil
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Syngas
|-
! style="height:1.8em;"|
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
|-
| [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Company_1|Company 1]]
| [Country HQ location]
| [Technology category (if different sub-categories are defined this has to be specified here, the available categories can be found on each technology page under the chapter [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Process_and_technologies|Process and technologies]])]
| [Technology name (the "branded name" or the usual naming from company side)]
| [4-9]
| [numeric value]
|
|
|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
|-
| [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Company_2|Company 2]]
| [Country HQ location]
| [(if different sub-categories are defined this has to be specified here, the available categories can be found on each technology page under the chapter [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Process_and_technologies|Process and technologies]])]
| [Technology name (the "branded name" or the usual naming from company side)]
| [4-9]
| [numeric value]
|
|
|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
|}

=== SCF Technologies A/S ===
{{Infobox provider-hydrothermal processing|Company=SCF Technologies A/S|Country=Denmark|Technology name=CatLiq|TRL=6-7|Product=Bio-oil|Feedstock=Wet biomass waste|Pressure=250|Temperature=>400|Technology category=Thermochemical processes|Capacity=15.000}}

=== Aarhus University ===

=== ENI S.p.A (W2F process) (Italy) ===

=== NextChem ===

== Open access pilot and demo facility providers ==
[https://biopilots4u.eu/database?field_technology_area_data_target_id=109&field_technology_area_target_id%5B86%5D=86&field_contact_address_value_country_code=All&field_scale_value=All&combine=&combine_1= Pilots4U Database]

== Patents ==
Currently no patents have been identified.

== References ==

Hydrothermal processing

2022-01-31T15:11:30Z

Anneleen De Vriendt: /* Origin and composition */

{{Infobox technology
|Name=Hydrothermal processing
|Category=[[Primary processing]]
|Feedstock =Feedstocks with high moisture content. [[Food waste]], [[Garden and park waste]]
|Product =Bio-crude, syngas, hydrochar
}}

<onlyinclude>Hydrothermal processing, also known as Hydrothermal Upgrading (HTU), is a thermochemical conversion process that is used to convert biomass into valuable products or biofuel. The process is usually performed in water at 250-374°C under pressures of 4-22 MPa. The biomass is degraded into small components in water. Based on the target products, which are bio-crude, syngas or hydrochar, the process conditions (e.g., temperature, pressure and residence time) are chosen. One of the most important advantages of hydrothermal processing is that it can use biomass with high moisture content withouth the need for pre-drying. Hydrothermal processing can be divided into three separate processes, depending on the severity of the operating conditions. These include hydrothermal carbonisation (HTC), hydrothermal liquefaction (HTL), and hydrothermal gasification (HTG).</onlyinclude>

== Feedstock ==

=== Origin and composition ===
Feedstocks with high moisture content are particularly suitable for hydrothermal processing and include feedstocks such as anaerobic digestion digestate, manures, sewage sludge, DDGS, food waste, municipal wastes, and aquatic biomass such as micro- and macroalgae. Hydrothermal processing routes can typically feed slurries up to 30 wt.% solids.

=== Pre-treatment ===

== Process and technologies ==

=== Process ===
A hydrothermal process is usually performed in water at 250-374°C under a pressure of 4-22 MPa. The process can also be carried out under self-generated pressure. The hydrothermal process is divided into two reaction conditions, namely subcritical and supercritical water conditions. These two conditions are determined by the critical point of water (i.e., 374°C and 22.1 MPa). Subcritical water is classified below the critical point at a 100-374°C temperature range and under sufficient pressure to remain liquid. Supercritical water occurs when the temperature is above 374°C and the pressure is above 22.1 MPa. The decomposition steps of biomass during the hydrothermal process can be summerized as follows: at approximately 100°C, the water-soluble portion of the biomsas disperses into water, and hydrolysis takes place above 150°C. Meanwhile, biomass polymers (i.e., cellulose and hemicellulose) disintegrate into heir monomeric chains. At approximately 300°C and 10 MPa, liquefaction occurs and bio-oil is obtained.

=== Technologies ===

* HTC occurs at temperatures between 180°C and 250°C and pressure of 2-4 MPa. This is the mildest of the three hydrothermal processing routes. The main product of HTC is solid hydrochar.

* HTL utilises subcritical water and occurs at temperatures between 250°C and 374°C and pressures up to 18 MPa. The main product of HTL is a liquid bio-crude.

* HTG or supercritical water gasification (SCWG) occurs at temperatures above 374°C and higher pressures beyond 20 MPa. The main product of HTG is a syngas.

== Product ==
Dependent on the technology, hydrochar, bio-crude or syngas is produced. The produced gas is not the same as conventional syngas from [[gasification]], which is comprised of hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Nevertheless, the gas is referred to as syngas but is typically high in either hydrogen or methane with carbon dioxide also present. The hydrochar can be utilised as fertilizers, adsorbents, and wastewater treatments. The intermediate biocrude can be further upgraded to liquid hydrocarbon fuels via catalytic hydrotreatment.

=== Post-treatment ===

== Technology providers ==
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+'''Technology comparison'''
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Company name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Country
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology category
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| TRL
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Capacity [kg/h]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Pressure [bar]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Temperature [°C]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Reactor
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Gasifying agent
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Food waste
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Garden & park waste
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Char
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Oil
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Product: Syngas
|-
! style="height:1.8em;"|
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
|-
| [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Company_1|Company 1]]
| [Country HQ location]
| [Technology category (if different sub-categories are defined this has to be specified here, the available categories can be found on each technology page under the chapter [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Process_and_technologies|Process and technologies]])]
| [Technology name (the "branded name" or the usual naming from company side)]
| [4-9]
| [numeric value]
|
|
|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
|-
| [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Company_2|Company 2]]
| [Country HQ location]
| [(if different sub-categories are defined this has to be specified here, the available categories can be found on each technology page under the chapter [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Process_and_technologies|Process and technologies]])]
| [Technology name (the "branded name" or the usual naming from company side)]
| [4-9]
| [numeric value]
|
|
|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
|}

=== SCF Technologies A/S ===
{{Infobox provider-hydrothermal processing|Company=SCF Technologies A/S|Country=Denmark|Technology name=CatLiq|TRL=6-7|Product=Bio-oil|Feedstock=Wet biomass waste|Pressure=250|Temperature=>400|Technology category=Thermochemical processes|Capacity=15.000}}

=== Aarhus University ===

=== ENI S.p.A (W2F process) (Italy) ===

=== NextChem ===

== Open access pilot and demo facility providers ==
[https://biopilots4u.eu/database?field_technology_area_data_target_id=109&field_technology_area_target_id%5B86%5D=86&field_contact_address_value_country_code=All&field_scale_value=All&combine=&combine_1= Pilots4U Database]

== Patents ==
Currently no patents have been identified.

== References ==

Gasification

2022-01-24T15:37:35Z

Anneleen De Vriendt: /* Drying */

{{Infobox technology
|Name=Gasification
|Category=[[Primary processing]]
|Feedstock = [[Garden and Park waste]] (lignocellulosic biomass, dry organic fraction of municipal solid waste)
|Product =Producer gas, Syngas
}}

<onlyinclude>'''Gasification''' is the conversion of a solid or liquid organic compound in a gas phase and a solid phase. The gas phase, usually called 'syngas' or 'producer gas', has a high heating power and can be used for power generation or biofuel production. The solid phase, called char, includes the organic unconverted fraction and the inert material present in the treated feedstock.</onlyinclude> The syngas produced is a gas mixture of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) as well as light hydrocarbons, such as ethane and propane, and heavier hydrocarbons, such as tars. Undesirable gases, such as sulphidric (H2S) and chloridric acid (HCl), or inert gases, such as nitrogen (N2), can be present in the syngas. Conversion of organic material is achieved by exposing the feedstock to high temperatures, typically 700°C - 1100°C in the presence of a gasifying agent. The gasifying agents used are air, oxygen, steam or a mixture thereof.

Gasification of organic material offers several advantages. The produced syngas can be more efficient than direct combustion of the original feedstock, and can be used for multiple applications, such as heat and electricity generation, including high temperature heat for industry, for mechanical energy, as transport fuel, as raw material for chemicals, and when cleaned and upgraded to near pure methane, can be injected into the grid.

== Feedstock ==

=== Origin and composition ===
Usually, gasifiers use wood and other lignocellulosic biomass. It can also be designed to convert the dry organic fraction of municipal solid waste (MSW). Depending on the nature of the organic material, the presence of the moisture content generally varies from 5% to 35%.

=== Pre-treatment ===

* [[Sizing]] (e.g., chipping, grinding)
* [[Drying]]

== Process and technologies ==

=== Gasification process ===
The principal reactions of the gasification are endothermic and the necessary energy for their occurrence is granted by the oxidation of part of the organic material, through an allo-thermal or an auto-thermal phase. In the auto-thermal process, the gasifier is internally heated through partial combustion, while in the allo-thermal process the energy required for the gasification is supplied externally. Considering the auto-thermal system, gasification can be seen as a sequence of several stages. The main steps of the gasification process are:

# Oxidation (exothermic stage)
# Drying (endothermic stage)
# Pyrolysis (endothermic stage)
# Reduction (endothermic stage)

==== Oxidation ====
The partial oxidation of the feedstock is necessary to obtain the thermal energy required for the endothermic stages of the process in order to maintain the operative temperature at the required value. The oxidation phase is carried out in near oxygen free conditions in order to oxidize only part of the feedstock. The main reactions that take place during the oxidation phase are the following:

<chem> C + O2 -> CO2</chem> ΔH = -349 kJ/mol (Char combustion)

<chem>C + 1/2O2-> CO</chem> ΔH = -111 kJ/mol (Partial oxidation)

<chem>H2 + 1/2O2 -> H2O</chem> ΔH = -242 kJ/mol (Hydrogen combustion)

The main product of this phase is the thermal energy, while the combustion product is a gas mixture of CO, CO2 and water.

==== Drying ====
During the drying phase, the moisture contained in the feedstock is evaporated. The amount of heat required is proportional to the feedstock moisture content. Generally, the heat required derives from the other stages of the process.

==== Pyrolysis ====
Pyrolysis is the thermochemical decomposition of organic compounds. In particular, the cracking of chemical bonds takes place with the formation of three different fractions: a solid, a liquid and a gaseous fraction. The pyrolysis reaction takes place with a temperature in the range of 250-700°C. It is an endothermic reaction and, as in the drying step, the heat required comes from the oxidation process. The pyrolysis of organic material can be schematized with the following overall reaction:<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Meilina Widyawati, Tamara L. Church, Nicholas H. Florin, Andrew T. Harris|year=2011|title=Hydrogen synthesis from biomass pyrolysis with in situ carbon dioxide capture using calcium oxide|journal=International Journal of Hydrogen Energy|volume=36|page=4800-4813|doi=10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.11.103}}</ref>

<chem>Biomass <=> H2 + CO + CO2 + CH4 + H2O + Tar + Char</chem>

When the feedstock is made of biomass, since cellulose is its main component, in this reaction the biomass can be indicated with the chemical formula of cellulose (i.e., C6H10O6)

==== Reduction ====
The reduction step involves the reaction between the products of the preceding stages of pyrolysis and oxidation, which results in the formation of the final syngas. The main reactions occurring in the reduction step are as follows:

<chem>C + CO2 +<-> 2 CO</chem> (Boudouard reaction)

<chem>C + H2O <-> CO +H2</chem> (Reforming of the char)

<chem>CO + H2O <-> CO2 + H2</chem> (Water gas shift reaction)

<chem>C + 2H2 <-> CH4</chem> (Methanation)

=== Gasification technologies ===
The reactors to gasify a pre-treated feedstock, called gasifiers, essentially differ from one another for mode of contact between the feed material and the gasifying agent, mode and rate of heat transfer, and residence time of the fed material into the reaction zone. Different technological solutions can be implemented to obtain different configurations. Principally, the mode of contact may be in counter-current, co-current, or cross flow, and the heat can be transferred from the outside or directly in the reactor using a combustion agent. The residence time can be in the order of hours (static gasifiers) or minutes (fluidized bed gasifiers). The main reactors used in the biomass gasification process are as follows:

# Entrained flow reactor
# Fixed bed reactor, either updraft (counter-current) or downdraft (co-current)
# Fluidized bed reactor, either bubbling fluidized bed or circulating fluidized bed
# Rotary kiln reactor
# Plasma reactor

== Product ==
The syngas product has a lower heating value (LHV) that ranges from 4 to 13 MJ/Nm3, depending on the feedstock, the gasification technology and the operational conditions<ref>{{Cite journal|author=K. Qian, A. Kumar, K. Patil, D. Bellmer, D. Wang, W. Yuan, R.L. Huhnke|year=2013|title=Effects of Biomass Feedstocks and Gasification Conditions on the Physiochemical Properties of Char|journal=Energies|volume=6|page=3972-3986|doi=10.3390/en6083972}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Yueshi Wu, Weihong Yang, Wlodzimierz Blasiak|year=2014|title=Energy and Exergy Analysis of high Temperature Agent Gasification of Biomass|journal=Energies|volume=7|page=2107-2122|doi=10.3390/en7042107}}</ref>. Syngas can be processed for obtaining secondary products as heat, electricity, chemicals, bioethanol (via syngas fermentation<ref>{{Cite journal|author=James Daniell, Michael Kopke, Sean Dennis Simpson|year=2012|title=Commercial Biomass Syngas Fermentation|journal=Energies|volume=5|page=5372-5417|doi=10.3390/en5125372}}</ref> ), and biodiesel (via [[Fischer-Tropsch-Synthesis]]<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Marcin Siedlecki, Wiebren de Jong, Adrian H.M. Verkooijen|year=2011|title=Fluidized Bed Gasification as a Mature And Reliable Technology for the Production of Bio-Syngas and Applied in the Production of Liquid Transportation Fuels—A Review|journal=Energies|volume=4|page=389-434|doi=10.3390/en4030389}}</ref>), depending on the type of conversion technology.

=== Post-treatment ===

== Technology providers ==
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+'''Technology comparison'''
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Company name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Country
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology category
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| TRL
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Capacity [kg/h]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Heating
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Reactor
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Gasifying agent
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Food waste
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Garden & park waste
|-
! style="height:1.8em;"|
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
|-
| [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Company_1|Company 1]]
| [Country HQ location]
| [Technology category (if different sub-categories are defined this has to be specified here, the available categories can be found on each technology page under the chapter [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Process_and_technologies|Process and technologies]])]
| [Technology name (the "branded name" or the usual naming from company side)]
| [4-9]
| [numeric value]
|
|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
|-
| [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Company_2|Company 2]]
| [Country HQ location]
| [(if different sub-categories are defined this has to be specified here, the available categories can be found on each technology page under the chapter [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Process_and_technologies|Process and technologies]])]
| [Technology name (the "branded name" or the usual naming from company side)]
| [4-9]
| [numeric value]
|
|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
|}

=== ANDRITZ Oy ===
{{Infobox provider-gasification|Company=ANDRITZ Oy|Technology name=ANDRITZ Carbona pressurized gasification technology|TRL=8-9|Technology category=Low-pressure BFB gasifier|Reactor=Fluidized bed reactor|Catalyst=Air, oxygen|Feedstock=Woody biomass|Product=Syngas, char}}

=== ECN/Synova (MILENA Biomass Gasification process) ===

=== KEPCO-Uhde ===

=== Mavitech ===

=== Meva Energy AB ===
{{Infobox provider-gasification|Company=MEVA Energy AB|Webpage=https://www.mevaenergy.com|Country=Sweden (Pitea, Hortlax plant)|TRL=7-8|Technology name=MEVA Technology|Capacity=1000|Reactor=Entrained-flow cyclone|Temperature=800-1000|Catalyst=Air|Feedstock=Crushed pellets, sawdust|Product=Biochar, electricity & heat}}

== Open access pilot and demo facility providers ==
[https://biopilots4u.eu/database?field_technology_area_data_target_id=109&field_technology_area_target_id%5B83%5D=83&field_contact_address_value_country_code=All&field_scale_value=All&combine=&combine_1= Pilots4U Database]

== Patents ==
Currently no patents have been identified.

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Secondary processing]]

Gasification

2022-01-24T15:34:14Z

Anneleen De Vriendt: /* Oxidation */

{{Infobox technology
|Name=Gasification
|Category=[[Primary processing]]
|Feedstock = [[Garden and Park waste]] (lignocellulosic biomass, dry organic fraction of municipal solid waste)
|Product =Producer gas, Syngas
}}

<onlyinclude>'''Gasification''' is the conversion of a solid or liquid organic compound in a gas phase and a solid phase. The gas phase, usually called 'syngas' or 'producer gas', has a high heating power and can be used for power generation or biofuel production. The solid phase, called char, includes the organic unconverted fraction and the inert material present in the treated feedstock.</onlyinclude> The syngas produced is a gas mixture of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) as well as light hydrocarbons, such as ethane and propane, and heavier hydrocarbons, such as tars. Undesirable gases, such as sulphidric (H2S) and chloridric acid (HCl), or inert gases, such as nitrogen (N2), can be present in the syngas. Conversion of organic material is achieved by exposing the feedstock to high temperatures, typically 700°C - 1100°C in the presence of a gasifying agent. The gasifying agents used are air, oxygen, steam or a mixture thereof.

Gasification of organic material offers several advantages. The produced syngas can be more efficient than direct combustion of the original feedstock, and can be used for multiple applications, such as heat and electricity generation, including high temperature heat for industry, for mechanical energy, as transport fuel, as raw material for chemicals, and when cleaned and upgraded to near pure methane, can be injected into the grid.

== Feedstock ==

=== Origin and composition ===
Usually, gasifiers use wood and other lignocellulosic biomass. It can also be designed to convert the dry organic fraction of municipal solid waste (MSW). Depending on the nature of the organic material, the presence of the moisture content generally varies from 5% to 35%.

=== Pre-treatment ===

* [[Sizing]] (e.g., chipping, grinding)
* [[Drying]]

== Process and technologies ==

=== Gasification process ===
The principal reactions of the gasification are endothermic and the necessary energy for their occurrence is granted by the oxidation of part of the organic material, through an allo-thermal or an auto-thermal phase. In the auto-thermal process, the gasifier is internally heated through partial combustion, while in the allo-thermal process the energy required for the gasification is supplied externally. Considering the auto-thermal system, gasification can be seen as a sequence of several stages. The main steps of the gasification process are:

# Oxidation (exothermic stage)
# Drying (endothermic stage)
# Pyrolysis (endothermic stage)
# Reduction (endothermic stage)

==== Oxidation ====
The partial oxidation of the feedstock is necessary to obtain the thermal energy required for the endothermic stages of the process in order to maintain the operative temperature at the required value. The oxidation phase is carried out in near oxygen free conditions in order to oxidize only part of the feedstock. The main reactions that take place during the oxidation phase are the following:

<chem> C + O2 -> CO2</chem> ΔH = -349 kJ/mol (Char combustion)

<chem>C + 1/2O2-> CO</chem> ΔH = -111 kJ/mol (Partial oxidation)

<chem>H2 + 1/2O2 -> H2O</chem> ΔH = -242 kJ/mol (Hydrogen combustion)

The main product of this phase is the thermal energy, while the combustion product is a gas mixture of CO, CO2 and water.

==== Drying ====
During the drying phase, the moisture contained in the feedstock is evaporated. The amount of heat required is proportinal to the feedstock moisture content. Generally, the heat required derives from the other stages of the process.

==== Pyrolysis ====
Pyrolysis is the thermochemical decomposition of organic compounds. In particular, the cracking of chemical bonds takes place with the formation of three different fractions: a solid, a liquid and a gaseous fraction. The pyrolysis reaction takes place with a temperature in the range of 250-700°C. It is an endothermic reaction and, as in the drying step, the heat required comes from the oxidation process. The pyrolysis of organic material can be schematized with the following overall reaction:<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Meilina Widyawati, Tamara L. Church, Nicholas H. Florin, Andrew T. Harris|year=2011|title=Hydrogen synthesis from biomass pyrolysis with in situ carbon dioxide capture using calcium oxide|journal=International Journal of Hydrogen Energy|volume=36|page=4800-4813|doi=10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.11.103}}</ref>

<chem>Biomass <=> H2 + CO + CO2 + CH4 + H2O + Tar + Char</chem>

When the feedstock is made of biomass, since cellulose is its main component, in this reaction the biomass can be indicated with the chemical formula of cellulose (i.e., C6H10O6)

==== Reduction ====
The reduction step involves the reaction between the products of the preceding stages of pyrolysis and oxidation, which results in the formation of the final syngas. The main reactions occurring in the reduction step are as follows:

<chem>C + CO2 +<-> 2 CO</chem> (Boudouard reaction)

<chem>C + H2O <-> CO +H2</chem> (Reforming of the char)

<chem>CO + H2O <-> CO2 + H2</chem> (Water gas shift reaction)

<chem>C + 2H2 <-> CH4</chem> (Methanation)

=== Gasification technologies ===
The reactors to gasify a pre-treated feedstock, called gasifiers, essentially differ from one another for mode of contact between the feed material and the gasifying agent, mode and rate of heat transfer, and residence time of the fed material into the reaction zone. Different technological solutions can be implemented to obtain different configurations. Principally, the mode of contact may be in counter-current, co-current, or cross flow, and the heat can be transferred from the outside or directly in the reactor using a combustion agent. The residence time can be in the order of hours (static gasifiers) or minutes (fluidized bed gasifiers). The main reactors used in the biomass gasification process are as follows:

# Entrained flow reactor
# Fixed bed reactor, either updraft (counter-current) or downdraft (co-current)
# Fluidized bed reactor, either bubbling fluidized bed or circulating fluidized bed
# Rotary kiln reactor
# Plasma reactor

== Product ==
The syngas product has a lower heating value (LHV) that ranges from 4 to 13 MJ/Nm3, depending on the feedstock, the gasification technology and the operational conditions<ref>{{Cite journal|author=K. Qian, A. Kumar, K. Patil, D. Bellmer, D. Wang, W. Yuan, R.L. Huhnke|year=2013|title=Effects of Biomass Feedstocks and Gasification Conditions on the Physiochemical Properties of Char|journal=Energies|volume=6|page=3972-3986|doi=10.3390/en6083972}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Yueshi Wu, Weihong Yang, Wlodzimierz Blasiak|year=2014|title=Energy and Exergy Analysis of high Temperature Agent Gasification of Biomass|journal=Energies|volume=7|page=2107-2122|doi=10.3390/en7042107}}</ref>. Syngas can be processed for obtaining secondary products as heat, electricity, chemicals, bioethanol (via syngas fermentation<ref>{{Cite journal|author=James Daniell, Michael Kopke, Sean Dennis Simpson|year=2012|title=Commercial Biomass Syngas Fermentation|journal=Energies|volume=5|page=5372-5417|doi=10.3390/en5125372}}</ref> ), and biodiesel (via [[Fischer-Tropsch-Synthesis]]<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Marcin Siedlecki, Wiebren de Jong, Adrian H.M. Verkooijen|year=2011|title=Fluidized Bed Gasification as a Mature And Reliable Technology for the Production of Bio-Syngas and Applied in the Production of Liquid Transportation Fuels—A Review|journal=Energies|volume=4|page=389-434|doi=10.3390/en4030389}}</ref>), depending on the type of conversion technology.

=== Post-treatment ===

== Technology providers ==
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+'''Technology comparison'''
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Company name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Country
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology category
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| TRL
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Capacity [kg/h]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Heating
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Reactor
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Gasifying agent
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Food waste
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Garden & park waste
|-
! style="height:1.8em;"|
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
|-
| [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Company_1|Company 1]]
| [Country HQ location]
| [Technology category (if different sub-categories are defined this has to be specified here, the available categories can be found on each technology page under the chapter [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Process_and_technologies|Process and technologies]])]
| [Technology name (the "branded name" or the usual naming from company side)]
| [4-9]
| [numeric value]
|
|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
|-
| [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Company_2|Company 2]]
| [Country HQ location]
| [(if different sub-categories are defined this has to be specified here, the available categories can be found on each technology page under the chapter [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Process_and_technologies|Process and technologies]])]
| [Technology name (the "branded name" or the usual naming from company side)]
| [4-9]
| [numeric value]
|
|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
|}

=== ANDRITZ Oy ===
{{Infobox provider-gasification|Company=ANDRITZ Oy|Technology name=ANDRITZ Carbona pressurized gasification technology|TRL=8-9|Technology category=Low-pressure BFB gasifier|Reactor=Fluidized bed reactor|Catalyst=Air, oxygen|Feedstock=Woody biomass|Product=Syngas, char}}

=== ECN/Synova (MILENA Biomass Gasification process) ===

=== KEPCO-Uhde ===

=== Mavitech ===

=== Meva Energy AB ===
{{Infobox provider-gasification|Company=MEVA Energy AB|Webpage=https://www.mevaenergy.com|Country=Sweden (Pitea, Hortlax plant)|TRL=7-8|Technology name=MEVA Technology|Capacity=1000|Reactor=Entrained-flow cyclone|Temperature=800-1000|Catalyst=Air|Feedstock=Crushed pellets, sawdust|Product=Biochar, electricity & heat}}

== Open access pilot and demo facility providers ==
[https://biopilots4u.eu/database?field_technology_area_data_target_id=109&field_technology_area_target_id%5B83%5D=83&field_contact_address_value_country_code=All&field_scale_value=All&combine=&combine_1= Pilots4U Database]

== Patents ==
Currently no patents have been identified.

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Secondary processing]]

Gasification

2022-01-24T15:19:54Z

Anneleen De Vriendt: /* Gasification process */

{{Infobox technology
|Name=Gasification
|Category=[[Primary processing]]
|Feedstock = [[Garden and Park waste]] (lignocellulosic biomass, dry organic fraction of municipal solid waste)
|Product =Producer gas, Syngas
}}

<onlyinclude>'''Gasification''' is the conversion of a solid or liquid organic compound in a gas phase and a solid phase. The gas phase, usually called 'syngas' or 'producer gas', has a high heating power and can be used for power generation or biofuel production. The solid phase, called char, includes the organic unconverted fraction and the inert material present in the treated feedstock.</onlyinclude> The syngas produced is a gas mixture of carbon monoxide (CO), hydrogen (H2), methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) as well as light hydrocarbons, such as ethane and propane, and heavier hydrocarbons, such as tars. Undesirable gases, such as sulphidric (H2S) and chloridric acid (HCl), or inert gases, such as nitrogen (N2), can be present in the syngas. Conversion of organic material is achieved by exposing the feedstock to high temperatures, typically 700°C - 1100°C in the presence of a gasifying agent. The gasifying agents used are air, oxygen, steam or a mixture thereof.

Gasification of organic material offers several advantages. The produced syngas can be more efficient than direct combustion of the original feedstock, and can be used for multiple applications, such as heat and electricity generation, including high temperature heat for industry, for mechanical energy, as transport fuel, as raw material for chemicals, and when cleaned and upgraded to near pure methane, can be injected into the grid.

== Feedstock ==

=== Origin and composition ===
Usually, gasifiers use wood and other lignocellulosic biomass. It can also be designed to convert the dry organic fraction of municipal solid waste (MSW). Depending on the nature of the organic material, the presence of the moisture content generally varies from 5% to 35%.

=== Pre-treatment ===

* [[Sizing]] (e.g., chipping, grinding)
* [[Drying]]

== Process and technologies ==

=== Gasification process ===
The principal reactions of the gasification are endothermic and the necessary energy for their occurrence is granted by the oxidation of part of the organic material, through an allo-thermal or an auto-thermal phase. In the auto-thermal process, the gasifier is internally heated through partial combustion, while in the allo-thermal process the energy required for the gasification is supplied externally. Considering the auto-thermal system, gasification can be seen as a sequence of several stages. The main steps of the gasification process are:

# Oxidation (exothermic stage)
# Drying (endothermic stage)
# Pyrolysis (endothermic stage)
# Reduction (endothermic stage)

==== Oxidation ====
The partial oxidation of the feedstock is necessary to obtain the thermal energy required for the endothermic stages of the process in order to maintain the operative temperature at the required value. The oxidation phase is carried out in near oxygen free conditions in order to oxidize only part of the feedstock. The main reaction that take place during the oxidation phase are the following:

<chem> C + O2 -> CO2</chem> ΔH = -349 kJ/mol (Char combustion)

<chem>C + 1/2O2-> CO</chem> ΔH = -111 kJ/mol (Partial oxidation)

<chem>H2 + 1/2O2 -> H2O</chem> ΔH = -242 kJ/mol (Hydrogen combustion)

The main product of this phase is the thermal energy, while the combustion product is a gas mixture of CO, CO2 and water.

==== Drying ====
During the drying phase, the moisture contained in the feedstock is evaporated. The amount of heat required is proportinal to the feedstock moisture content. Generally, the heat required derives from the other stages of the process.

==== Pyrolysis ====
Pyrolysis is the thermochemical decomposition of organic compounds. In particular, the cracking of chemical bonds takes place with the formation of three different fractions: a solid, a liquid and a gaseous fraction. The pyrolysis reaction takes place with a temperature in the range of 250-700°C. It is an endothermic reaction and, as in the drying step, the heat required comes from the oxidation process. The pyrolysis of organic material can be schematized with the following overall reaction:<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Meilina Widyawati, Tamara L. Church, Nicholas H. Florin, Andrew T. Harris|year=2011|title=Hydrogen synthesis from biomass pyrolysis with in situ carbon dioxide capture using calcium oxide|journal=International Journal of Hydrogen Energy|volume=36|page=4800-4813|doi=10.1016/j.ijhydene.2010.11.103}}</ref>

<chem>Biomass <=> H2 + CO + CO2 + CH4 + H2O + Tar + Char</chem>

When the feedstock is made of biomass, since cellulose is its main component, in this reaction the biomass can be indicated with the chemical formula of cellulose (i.e., C6H10O6)

==== Reduction ====
The reduction step involves the reaction between the products of the preceding stages of pyrolysis and oxidation, which results in the formation of the final syngas. The main reactions occurring in the reduction step are as follows:

<chem>C + CO2 +<-> 2 CO</chem> (Boudouard reaction)

<chem>C + H2O <-> CO +H2</chem> (Reforming of the char)

<chem>CO + H2O <-> CO2 + H2</chem> (Water gas shift reaction)

<chem>C + 2H2 <-> CH4</chem> (Methanation)

=== Gasification technologies ===
The reactors to gasify a pre-treated feedstock, called gasifiers, essentially differ from one another for mode of contact between the feed material and the gasifying agent, mode and rate of heat transfer, and residence time of the fed material into the reaction zone. Different technological solutions can be implemented to obtain different configurations. Principally, the mode of contact may be in counter-current, co-current, or cross flow, and the heat can be transferred from the outside or directly in the reactor using a combustion agent. The residence time can be in the order of hours (static gasifiers) or minutes (fluidized bed gasifiers). The main reactors used in the biomass gasification process are as follows:

# Entrained flow reactor
# Fixed bed reactor, either updraft (counter-current) or downdraft (co-current)
# Fluidized bed reactor, either bubbling fluidized bed or circulating fluidized bed
# Rotary kiln reactor
# Plasma reactor

== Product ==
The syngas product has a lower heating value (LHV) that ranges from 4 to 13 MJ/Nm3, depending on the feedstock, the gasification technology and the operational conditions<ref>{{Cite journal|author=K. Qian, A. Kumar, K. Patil, D. Bellmer, D. Wang, W. Yuan, R.L. Huhnke|year=2013|title=Effects of Biomass Feedstocks and Gasification Conditions on the Physiochemical Properties of Char|journal=Energies|volume=6|page=3972-3986|doi=10.3390/en6083972}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|author=Yueshi Wu, Weihong Yang, Wlodzimierz Blasiak|year=2014|title=Energy and Exergy Analysis of high Temperature Agent Gasification of Biomass|journal=Energies|volume=7|page=2107-2122|doi=10.3390/en7042107}}</ref>. Syngas can be processed for obtaining secondary products as heat, electricity, chemicals, bioethanol (via syngas fermentation<ref>{{Cite journal|author=James Daniell, Michael Kopke, Sean Dennis Simpson|year=2012|title=Commercial Biomass Syngas Fermentation|journal=Energies|volume=5|page=5372-5417|doi=10.3390/en5125372}}</ref> ), and biodiesel (via [[Fischer-Tropsch-Synthesis]]<ref>{{Cite journal|author=Marcin Siedlecki, Wiebren de Jong, Adrian H.M. Verkooijen|year=2011|title=Fluidized Bed Gasification as a Mature And Reliable Technology for the Production of Bio-Syngas and Applied in the Production of Liquid Transportation Fuels—A Review|journal=Energies|volume=4|page=389-434|doi=10.3390/en4030389}}</ref>), depending on the type of conversion technology.

=== Post-treatment ===

== Technology providers ==
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"
|+'''Technology comparison'''
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Company name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Country
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology category
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Technology name
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| TRL
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Capacity [kg/h]
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Heating
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Reactor
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Gasifying agent
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Food waste
! class="cd-text-darkgreen" style="{{writing-mode|s2}};vertical-align:{{{va|bottom}}}"| Feedstock: Garden & park waste
|-
! style="height:1.8em;"|
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
|-
| [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Company_1|Company 1]]
| [Country HQ location]
| [Technology category (if different sub-categories are defined this has to be specified here, the available categories can be found on each technology page under the chapter [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Process_and_technologies|Process and technologies]])]
| [Technology name (the "branded name" or the usual naming from company side)]
| [4-9]
| [numeric value]
|
|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
|-
| [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Company_2|Company 2]]
| [Country HQ location]
| [(if different sub-categories are defined this has to be specified here, the available categories can be found on each technology page under the chapter [[Help:Article content of technology pages#Process_and_technologies|Process and technologies]])]
| [Technology name (the "branded name" or the usual naming from company side)]
| [4-9]
| [numeric value]
|
|
|
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
| class="cd-background-lightgreen cd-text-darkgreen" style="text-align:center" |●
|}

=== ANDRITZ Oy ===
{{Infobox provider-gasification|Company=ANDRITZ Oy|Technology name=ANDRITZ Carbona pressurized gasification technology|TRL=8-9|Technology category=Low-pressure BFB gasifier|Reactor=Fluidized bed reactor|Catalyst=Air, oxygen|Feedstock=Woody biomass|Product=Syngas, char}}

=== ECN/Synova (MILENA Biomass Gasification process) ===

=== KEPCO-Uhde ===

=== Mavitech ===

=== Meva Energy AB ===
{{Infobox provider-gasification|Company=MEVA Energy AB|Webpage=https://www.mevaenergy.com|Country=Sweden (Pitea, Hortlax plant)|TRL=7-8|Technology name=MEVA Technology|Capacity=1000|Reactor=Entrained-flow cyclone|Temperature=800-1000|Catalyst=Air|Feedstock=Crushed pellets, sawdust|Product=Biochar, electricity & heat}}

== Open access pilot and demo facility providers ==
[https://biopilots4u.eu/database?field_technology_area_data_target_id=109&field_technology_area_target_id%5B83%5D=83&field_contact_address_value_country_code=All&field_scale_value=All&combine=&combine_1= Pilots4U Database]

== Patents ==
Currently no patents have been identified.

== References ==
<references />

[[Category:Secondary processing]]